History Through Music: The Impact of Stephen Collins Foster and Others

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"Old Songs! New Songs! Ev'ry kind of song. I noted them down as I read them along." 

Stephen Collins Foster – well-known for songs such as "Beautiful Dreamer," "Camptown Races," and "Oh! Susanna" – published over 200 songs from the 1840s-1860s that would be hits of the day. Foster, born on July 4, 1826, is often called the "father of American music," but sadly, his life is still shrouded in a bit of mystery as there are conflicting reports about his lifestyle. 

Foster spent his early life in and around Pittsburgh, PA, and was considered a "problem child" by his family. There are gaps in what we know about different periods of his life. It is known that he had financial problems but no specifics as to why. 

He became famous by the 1860s, as his songs were very popular, both in the United States and abroad. While living in 1864 New York, he died, supposedly penniless, before the end of the American Civil War (an event that provided material for some of his songs). Even today, controversy follows Foster and his minstrel songs. There are numerous legends and stories shared about him. 

Whatever is said of Foster – whether he was a loving, kind soul or possibly an alcoholic – his impact on popular and folk music is very important. Foster is a key part of American musical culture. You may not know the original arrangements of his songs as time has brought changes to them. 

"I come from Alabama wid a banjo on my knee...."

From one of his songs – "The Song of All Songs" – published in 1863, we are introduced to a compilation of titles and phrases from popular songs of the day. This novelty song is very interesting to read through and gives a starting point to learn more about additional works of the day.

Let's look at several songs mentioned in "The Song of All Songs."

"Abraham's Daughter"

The music and words of this popular minstrel song were written by Septimus Winner. They provide the basis for a song about joining up to fight in the American Civil War. Winner was probably influenced by the colorful Zouave uniforms of the 114th PA regiment volunteers.

Winner was a loyal Unionist and supporter of General George McClellan. He even wrote a controversial song after President Lincoln removed McClellan from his position – "Give Us Back Our Old Commander: Little Mac, the People's Pride." He was a professional songwriter, and at least one of his songs is still known and sung today—"Der Deitcher's Dog" or "Where, Oh Where Has My Little Dog Gone?" 

"Abraham's Daughter" was popular on the minstrel stage. There were printed versions which included dialects attributed to the southern slave states. There were many parodies of the song throughout the country. 

"Weeping Sad and Lonely"

A sentimental song with words written by Charles C. Sawyer and music by Henry Tucker is mentioned using the chorus line of "When this cruel war is over" in "The Song of Songs." The song was popular in both the North and the South during the American Civil War, as peace was something everyone sought. The Cleveland Leader stated the "words touch the popular heart" of the people.

In reality, this song could be sung during any wartime. Many a young man knelt before his loved one before he left for training or to join the men on the battlefield. Homeschoolers could list all the wars in which the United States was involved. Compare the start and end dates and discuss how long it would take for the cruel war to end.   

Although "Weeping Sad and Lonely" was very popular, critics did not understand why. However, if you have a family member who went to war, you may understand why it was so popular. 

"We Are Coming Father Abra'am"

"We leave our plows and workshops, our wives and children dear"

Another song about joining up to fight in the American Civil War says "We are coming, Father Abraham, six hundred thousand more!" The poem of James Sloan Gibbons – a response to Lincoln's call for additional troops – was set to the music. Gibbons was a well-known abolitionist, an associate of Garrison, the Grimke Sisters, and others. His poem was set to music by the Hutchison Family Singers, Stephen Foster, and Luther Orlando Emerson.


This "song of songs" is five stanzas with a short chorus. It contains the names of over fifty songs and phrases from songs to study in order to learn more about the music of the time. Will you find a song that speaks to you? 

References and Resources

Library of Congress: Stephen Collins Foster Biography

Library of Congress: Collection of audio files and sheet music of Stephen Foster

Blogging through the Alphabet: M is for Magruder

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Confederate General John Bankhead Magruder (May 1, 1807-February 19, 1871) was known for his manners and his theatrics. Thanks to his tactics during the Peninsula Campaign in 1862, the Union did not advance as quickly as it could have onto the Confederates. He would serve in the military for three different nations, but outside of the American Civil War history, he probably is not as well known as other Confederate generals like Lee and Jackson. 

Career Military Officer 

Magruder was a career military officer. He served in the military of three different nations: the United States, the Confederacy, and the Imperial Mexican Army. After graduating from West Point as a second lieutenant, he would go on to serve in the Mexican-American War as so many future Civil War soldiers would do. He fought at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Molino del Rey, Chapultepec, and Mexico City. 

He left to join the Confederacy when Virginia, his home state, succeeded on April 17, 1862. He was given the job of protecting the capital city of Richmond. He would direct the building of fortifications in the Virginia Peninsula and play a role using military deception. 

Magruder's Theatrics 

In April of 1862, there were approximately 13,000 Confederates under the command of Magruder. To delay Union General McClellan and his men, Magruder marched his infantry in circles outside of Yorktown. He also had his artillery fire from a variety of places to give the impression that there was more than he actually had at his disposal. "Prince John" Magruder wanted to give the idea that he had more men than he actually did and he succeeded!

Side note: He was called "Prince John" because of his manners and social graces. 

McClellan reacted just like Magruder had planned. He dug in for a siege because he thought there were more Confederates near Yorktown than there actually were at the time. McClellan believed he was in a much more difficult position than he actually was. This all delayed the Union movement during the Peninsula Campaign. 

There was a repeat performance at Chickahominy in 1862. Magruder was in charge of 27,000 men holding the line east of the city of Richmond. He instituted a few different techniques to help give the illusion that there were more Confederates again. The infantry lined up in attack formation and made small attacks on the Union defenses. He also had his officers call to imaginary regiments. Even though the Union was in good shape and they could have attacked on June 27, 1862, they didn't. Magruder was successful again in his theatrics. 

Even though he was successful in slowing the Union forces during the Peninsula Campaign, Magruder's performance was criticized and he was sent west. There were some problems during the Seven Days Battles, and it is debated how much Magruder deserved the criticism. Lee reassigned him to the District of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona in 1863. He would spend the remainder of the American Civil War in the Western Theater.

Ruse de Guerre 

Magruder's tactics included using military deception of as the French call it: ruse de guerre (ruse of war). There are two ways we can define ruse de guerre. As either military deception or using creative or clear means to achieve a military goal. 

We've seen this idea throughout history from the use of the Trojan Horse to Alexander the Great marching his men back and forth to give the impression that they didn't know where to cross a river so they could surprise attack. During World War I, the British flew the American flag on some ships to avoid German submarine attacks. Prior to WWI, the Japanese lured the Russians out of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. These are only a few examples from military history. As you can see these tactics have played a key role throughout all of history. Magruder was among some of the best military minds when he engaged in his theatrics. 

Read more about Magruder and his actions in the Seven Days Battles here: Emerging Civil War. 

Images from U.S. History Images. 

Blogging Through the Alphabet: L is for Literacy during the American Civil War

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One of the ways we know so much about the American Civil War time period is thanks to the numerous letters, diaries, and records kept by soldiers, civilians, and others. But can we view the literacy rate of those living during the time period? After all, a great number of the letters had various spelling and grammar errors that make some of them almost unreadable. Since there was great diversity in the Northern and Southern soldiery in their ability to read and write, let's examine it further.

Reading and Writing 

Reading was a source of recreation for many soldiers serving during the American Civil War. Even if one could not read, there was always someone willing to read a letter, book, or newspaper aloud. But reading was often difficult to do. There wasn't as much free time during the nicer, warmer weather and the winter made reading difficult. It was often too cold to out of covers during free time. But this didn't mean that newspapers were highly sought after no matter the time of year. They would be passed around and shared so much that they would be rags by the time the next newspaper arrived. 

If a soldier couldn't read or write, they could enlist the aid of their fellow soldiers, sometimes for a fee, or the chaplain. The regimental chaplain would often write letters to families for soldiers, especially those who were injured or dying. Sometimes they even held classes to teach the men reading and writing.

In the North, the majority of the soldiers were literate to some degree. There were a handful of illiterate soldiers from the larger cities, but most companies were all literate. According to Bell Irvin Wiley (known for The Life of Billy Yank and The Life of Johnny Reb), the Northern soldiers were more literate than the Southern soldiers. This was in part because of the emphasis placed on early elementary education in the North. 

If we look at four North Carolina regiments, we can see how much more common illiteracy was in the South. In one regiment, 27 out of 100 men could not sign their names on the muster rolls. They needed to make their mark. In another regiment, 36 out of 72 made their mark with an "x," while another 54 out of 100 made their mark. We could gather that all those men who couldn't sign their names probably weren't reading and writing themselves.

Educational Levels 

For both the North and the South during the American Civil War, the educational background and levels varied from those with no schooling to those with specialized training or college degrees. The majority of men serving were farmers, workers, and laborers, but there were many men with college degrees. We see this reflected in their letters. 

For example, in The Life of Billy Yank, Wiley details several Northern soldiers and their letters and diaries that demonstrate their high level of education. Edward F. Reid of the Third Indiana Cavalry shared in his diary quotes in Latin, Greek, and German as well as references to classical and contemporary literature. Harvard student Samuel Storrow, a corporal in the Forty-fourth Massachusetts Regiment, wrote letters that clearly demonstrate his proficiency in Latin and Greek. 

The North Critiquing the South 

When the letters of Southern soldiers made their way into the hands of Northern soldiers, there was often much laughter and critiquing. Many of the Union boys felt superior to those in the Confederate states, and the letters helped justify this in their minds. The Northern soldiers determined there was a lack of penmanship and proper grammar and spelling on the part of the Southern soldiers during the American Civil War. They also accused the Southern soldiers of not being very well-read. The problem is many of those critics were often not very literate themselves. 

Letters and Mail 

Even with the difficulties of getting mail, soldiers on both sides still wrote regularly. Some wrote once a week, setting aside Sunday for that task, while others wrote less frequently. On average, the letters were three pages long and contained similar information no matter where the soldier called home. In those letters, home soldiers wrote: 

• Good wishes for the health of those at home
• Prayers for the health of himself and his fellow soldiers 
• Accounts of recent battles
• Asking after the crops and farm back home
• Asked about home life
• Asked after their children if they were a father 
• Asked his wife to remember him to their children 

All of these things were often written in handwriting ranging from poor to elegant, along with poor punctuation or meticulous grammar. Sometimes, the same simple words were misspelled in different ways in the same letter. One can also find rustic figures of speech in these letters. One thing to keep in mind is that just because there was poor handwriting, grammar, and spelling, that is not always indicative of the educational level of the soldier writing the letter. Oftentimes. haste – the need to hurry up and write the letter – led to these things. So, we should not be quick to judge the men writing home. 

In closing, spelling and grammar were bad on both sides but more so on the South. Illiteracy could be a handicap because if a soldier wasn't able to read a pass or an order, then grave errors and mistakes could happen during or before battles. But no matter how well a soldier could read or write, he wanted to find out what was going on in the United States and share what was happening where he was with family and friends. 

Interested in reading more Blogging Through the Alphabet Posts? 

Blogging from A to Z: Kicking off a New School Year! by My Full Heart 

Homeschooling Tips from A to Z for 2022: The Letter K from Homeschooling Highway 

Keeping Up with the Joneses by Laura McKinney Adams 

Blogging Through the Alphabet: K is for Kentucky

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"Kentucky! O Kentucky!" 

"John Morgan's foot is on thy shore, 
Kentucky! O Kentucky!
His hand is on thy stable door, 
Kentucky! O Kentucky! 
You'll see your good gray mare no more, 
He'll ride her till her back is sore,
And leave her at some stranger's door,
Kentucky! O Kentucky!" 

In the spring of 1862, General John Hunt Morgan led Confederate night raiders on a series of raids into Union territory in Tennessee and Kentucky. This would provide the material for a parody of the song "Maryland, My Maryland" in order to provide a warning to the citizens of Kentucky that they better not help Morgan. 

Tensions 

The tension in and around Kentucky had been brewing since before the beginning of the American Civil War. It was one of several border states where there wasn't a clear distinction of which way it would go when the Civil War broke out. There was a large secessionist population in Kentucky. If Kentucky joined the Confederacy, it would be a huge boon. Kentucky would bring with it a huge population boost and more military manpower. There were horses and mules for the cavalry and transportation, as well as manufacturing centers in Kentucky. It would also bring with it a natural defensive border with the Ohio River. And two rivers flow through Kentucky directly into Tennessee and Alabama. 

After the lines had been drawn, it was said that supporters in Kentucky were evenly distributed between the North and the South. After all, Kentucky was the birthplace of both Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis. But with three slave states and three free states on the border, Kentucky did not want to take sides. In fact, Henry Clay of Kentucky had written three compromises to try and prevent the necessity of taking sides in 1820, 1833, and 1850. And Governor Magoffin of Kentucky rejected both Lincoln and Davis' requests for troops. 

Of course, just because Kentucky wished to remain neutral did not mean that the American Civil War would pass them by. There were military activities along the border as there were northern regiments stationed in Illinois and southern regiments in Tennessee. Both sides eyed Columbus, Kentucky as it was a key city to the control of the Mississippi River. 

Columbus 

On September 3, 1861, Confederate General Leonidas Polk moved to take Columbus, Kentucky while the Union General Grant occupied Paducah and Smithlands at the mouths of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. As the Confederates invaded Kentucky first, they were seen by many of the citizens of Kentucky as the aggressors which led them to support the Union. But not all would support the Union as many of the citizens voted to set up a provisional government which was accepted as the 13th Confederate state. 

Raids 

John Hunt Morgan (June 1, 1825-September 4, 1864) was known as the "Thunderbolt of the Confederacy." He was born in Huntsville, Alabama but had strong ties to his mother's home state of Kentucky. Morgan would enlist in the 1st Kentucky Calvary at the start of the Mexican War. 

In the American Civil War, Morgan would be made a colonel in April 1862, participate in the battle of Shiloh, and start his raids into eastern Kentucky in the summer of 1862. On July 4, 1862, he would start a 1,000-mile raid to destroy railroads and telegraph lines and seize supplies. His raid would make national headlines and birth the song "Kentucky! O Kentucky!" He would lead more raids in October and December into Kentucky and would eventually become one of the South's most celebrated Calvary officers.

Even if a state or people wanted to remain neutral and not take sides in the American Civil War, it was near impossible. The Civil War touched upon every aspect of life during the 1860s, just as the problems leading up to the Civil War had for the decades preceding the first shots at Fort Sumter.

Blogging Through the Alphabet: H is for Howe

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"Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord;
He is trampling out the vintage where grapes of wrath are stored;
He hath loosed the fateful lightning of His terrible swift sword,
His truth is marching on."

One of the most memorable songs to come from the American Civil War time period, The Battle Hymn of the Republic, still inspires us today as it is sung in churches and schools. What started off as a favorite marching song of the Union Army would transform into a staple amongst patriotic music when Julia Ward Howe changed the lyrics.

Julia Ward Howe (b. May 27, 1819 – d. October 17, 1910) was a descendant of Roger Williams (founder of the Rhode Island colony). Her mother died when she was only five years old, and the care of Julia and her siblings was left to her father, Samuel Ward, a successful banker. When Julia's father died when she was 20 years old, she and two of her sisters moved to her brother Sam's house. Between her aunt, her own thirst for knowledge, and her brother's household, she would become very well-educated and meet many famous men and women of the world, including Charles Dickens, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

In 1843, while touring the New England Institute for the Blind, she met Dr. Samuel Howe (who was twenty years her senior). He was a physician of international repute for his work with the blind and the deaf. And Dr. Howe was one of the secret six who helped finance John Brown's insurrection at Harper's Ferry. They had a very tumultuous marriage. She enjoyed writing and socializing while he preferred quiet and solitude.

New Lyrics 

While in Washington D.C., Julia was touring Union Army Camps with her husband and Reverend James Freeman Clarke and heard the men singing John's Brown's Body. This was a perfect song for the marching feet of the soldiers. The melody was from an old Methodist camp meeting song, but the words were added during the American Civil War. Oddly enough, the song's origins were not about the abolitionist John Brown, but about a sergeant in the 2nd Battalion of the Boston Light Infantry of the Massachusetts Volunteer Militia. However, it would gain popularity amongst all the Union camps and be connected to the John Brown and not the sergeant with the same name.

When hearing the song, Reverend Clarke suggested Julia write new lyrics to the tune to replace those of John Brown's Body. After the tours of the Union Army camps, she retired and went to bed as usual. She woke before dawn the next day with the words forming. By sunrise, she had finished six stanzas. The first draft is dated November 1861 and over the course of several weeks, she edited her lyrics. 

In February of 1862, Julia Ward Howe's work was published in The Atlantic Monthly. She was paid five dollars and The Battle Hymn of the Republic appeared on the first page. Her song would become an uplifting patriotic anthem during the American Civil War and continue with that fame to today. 

After the American Civil War, Julia Ward Howe would establish and lead several different women's organizations, champion for votes for women, and become a peace advocate. In 1908, Julia was the first woman elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. She would also be given an honorary degree from Smith College. 

From working with the U.S. Sanitary Commission during the American Civil War to her many writings, Julia Ward Howe has many accomplishments, but perhaps she is best known today as the author of The Battle Hymn of the Republic or even as being instrumental in the celebration of the first Mother's Day (even if it has changed dramatically from her proclamation for a day of peace). I think it will be interesting to see how history changes regarding Howe as – during my research of this article – I found contradictory information and reflections of today's standards being imposed upon her biography. 

Blogging Through the Alphabet: G is for Gunsmiths and the American Civil War

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It goes without saying that gunsmiths played an important role during the American Civil War. From names we know, like Samuel Colt and Eliphalet Remington to Christian Sharps, Christopher Spencer, and Benjamin Henry, there were several influential men in the gunsmith industry who helped modernize weapons and impacted the way the American Civil War was fought.

Revolver 

Samuel Colt (Jul 19, 1814- January 10, 1862) perfected the first pistol of its kind while in his 20s. Colt received his first patent in 1835 and started the Patent Arms Company in Patterson, New Jersey. He would later set up a factory in Hartford, Connecticut, where he introduced interchangeable parts and assembly lines to help with production. After additional improvements were made to the design, his sales increased during the Texas Revolution and the Mexican-American War. Improvements would continue to be made, and the Colt revolver would be a popular choice during the Civil War. In fact, the Union Army purchased 130,000 Colt Revolvers and individual soldiers purchased 70,000.

Rifles 

Christian Sharps (January 2, 1810-March 12, 1874) designed the Sharps .54-caliber rifle, which was a single-shot breech loader. He was issued a patent on September 12, 1848, for what would eventually become the first commercially successful breech-loading rifle. It could fire 8 to 10 rounds per minute. The Sharps carbine, shorter and lighter than the standard rifles, would be a favorite among the cavalry of the Union Army.

Another man from Connecticut, Christopher Spencer (June 20, 1833 – January 14, 1922), would also impact the American Civil War with his gunsmithing.  Spencer, who had 42 patents during his lifetime, would design a gun with a self-priming metallic cartridge in 1860. The Spencer repeating rifle was the first military breech-loading repeating rifle. The ammunition was loaded in a chamber at the rear of the gun barrel instead of the muzzle. The Spencer rifle became the standard arm of the Union Cavalry in the later stages of the American Civil War. This partly came about because Spencer personally demonstrated his rifle in a shooting match on the White House lawn to Abraham Lincoln.

Benjamin Henry (March 22, 1821-June 8, 1898), who worked for the Oliver Winchester Company in Connecticut, designed the .44-caliber Henry rifle. The Henry rifle's magazine held 15 bullets and was produced for army use starting in mid-1861. The Henry rifle was the first reliable lever-action repeating rifle.

Machine Guns 

In 1862, Dr. Richard Gatling (September 12, 1818 – February 26, 1903) patented the first hand-cranked weapon known as the Gatling gun. It had six barrels that would rotate around a central axis. The Gatling gun could fire 175 rounds per minute. It would be the first successful machine gun. Even though Gatling was born and raised in North Carolina, he would be a supporter of the Union, but that did not mean that his gun would only be used by the Union Army. Union General Benjamin Butler was the only Union general to purchase any Gatling guns, and they were only used once during the American Civil War.

The quote is different depending upon where you read it, but Gatling wrote regarding his thought in designing the Gatling gun, "It occurred to me if I could invent a machine – a gun – which would by its rapidity of fire enable one man to do as much battle as a hundred, then the number of men exposed to danger would be diminished." Personally, I understand the dream behind his thoughts, but the practicality is unfathomable. As we know having machine guns in war does not mean fewer men are put in the way of danger, but in reality, more men. We just have to look at the deaths in World War I as men went over the top (in trench warfare) to meet their death at the hands of one soldier operating a machine gun.

There were so many firsts in the world of gunsmithing prior to and during the American Civil War. Each gunsmith set forth to improve upon the design of guns for multiple reasons. Some even wanted to improve upon the design so that there would be less death and danger on the battlefield, like Gatling.  It's interesting to note most of the advancements took place in the North, but then again, it makes sense, considering the North was home to more of the factories than the South. 

Blogging Through the Alphabet: F is for Fort Pillow

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On April 12, 1864, one of the worst massacres in the American Civil War took place at Fort Pillow, Tennessee. The attack on the Union-controlled Fort was initiated by General Nathan Bedford Forrest, who is a vilified figure in the North as he was involved in several controversial attacks and battles and then became one of the founding members of the Ku Klux Klan. Even though it was counted as a Confederate victory, the attack would be classified as a massacre shortly after the events. 

Background History of Fort Pillow 

Fort Pillow was built by the Confederates in 1861 approximately 40 miles north of Memphis on the Mississippi River. The fort, named for Confederate General Gideon Pillow, itself stood on a high bluff with three lines of entrenchments and a parapet. It would serve to help in the Confederate river defense system until its capture by the Unions in 1862. The Unions would then incorporate it into their own defense system to protect communication and supply lines along the Mississippi River. The Union would even improve upon the defenses at the fort.  

By 1864, Fort Pillow was stationed by mainly recently emancipated and newly trained African American soldiers. The men would come from the 2nd U.S. Colored Light Artillery and the 6th U.S. Colored Heavy Artillery. The other half of the 600 men were white troops from the 13th U.S. West Tennessee Cavalry. (Many of these men were also Southerners who had joined the Union cause.) Fort Pillow was under the Union command of Major Lionel Booth on the morning of April 12, 1854. 

Confederate authorities were not pleased with the enlistment of the newly emancipated slaves joining the Union army. In fact, they threatened to execute any African Americans in Federal or Union uniforms. So, while Fort Pillow as not necessary to the success of the Confederate cause, it was seen as the perfect place to attack to teach the Union a lesson. The Confederates saw the fort as filled with runaway slaves and traitors. So, General Forrest set out to attack Fort Pillow.  

The Attack 

On April 12, 1864, 1,500 cavalrymen began the attack on the Union fort. Confederate sharpshooters opened fire from high ground and soon Fort Pillow was on fire. During the early hours of the battle, Major Lionel Booth was killed by a sharpshooter's bullet as he was cheering his men on in the battle. This left the inexperienced Major William Bradford in charge. 

With the surrounding of Fort Pillow by Forrest's men, the Confederate General demanded an unconditional surrender from the Union. So, by the afternoon, Bradford had to make a decision. Keep fighting or surrender and trust that the men of Fort Pillow would be treated as prisoners of war. Bradford, hoping that Union boats would be bringing reinforcements, requested a delay in responding to the surrender. Forrest refused to give Bradford more time, so Bradford sent his refusal to surrender. 

Forrest gave the order for the Confederate troops to swarm Fort Pillow. The 600 Union soldiers fell to one of three fates: 

• Some Union men died or fell wounded fighting.
• Some Union men fled downriver to escape the Confederates. 
• The Union men who attempted to surrender received no mercy. 

After the Massacre

There would be disagreements as to why the men who surrendered were shown no mercy. A Congressional investigation would take place and the actions at Fort Pillow would lead the Union to refuse to participate in future prisoner of war exchanges with the Confederacy.

Forrest would later state that he was not close enough to the action to be able to control his men and that is why they acted the way they did. He also stated that he and his men did nothing wrong, as Bradford had refused to surrender. And supposedly, the men who were surrendering when the Confederates swarmed Fort Pillow were not easy to distinguish between those who were continuing to fight. 

Eyewitness accounts of the day shared that the Union were being shot or bayoneted in cold blood. Even after the Union soldiers surrendered, the Confederates continued to gun down the Union men. They not only attacked the two African American regiments, but also the white Tennesseans whom the Confederates considered to be turncoats. Fort Pillow would turn out to be a slaughter pen in the end. Of the 262 African Soldiers, only 58 would be alive at the end of the fighting.

It was not just the Union men who shared the brutality of the events at Fort Pillow. Confederate Sergeant Achilles Clark of Forrest's command shared with his sister: "I with others tried to stop the butchery...but General Forrest ordered them shot down like dogs and the carnage continued."

Whether or not Forrest gave a clear command to slaughter the Union men at Fort Pillow, it is clear he lost control of his troops that day, leading to it being called a massacre. Historians still debate exactly what happened but it doesn't really matter because "Remember Fort Pillow" became a rallying cry and helped encourage many Union troops for the remainder of the war. 

Do You Want to Learn More? 

History Resources: The Fort Pillow Massacre 

Nathan Bedford Forrest Biography 

Tennessee State Parks: History of Fort Pillow 

Blogging Through the Alphabet: E is for Engineering During the American Civil War

 

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Great feats of engineering took place before and during the American Civil War. According to U.S. General George G. Meade, "The art of bridge building advanced more during 1861-1865 than during the previous one thousand years." Just how did the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers impact the war? 

Who Were the Engineers? 

Only a small portion of those who graduated at the top of their class at West Point would enter the Corps of Engineers. Men like Robert E. Lee, George McClellan, Henry Halleck, Joseph Johnston, George Meade, Gouverneur K. Warren, and P.G.T. Beauregard were all members of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers prior to the start of the American Civil War. 

Prior to the American Civil War, the engineers would build public buildings and monuments in Washington D.C., and install pipes to transport water, and bridges. They also surveyed land out west, oversaw the construction of lighthouses, maintained harbors, and managed the permanent fortifications to protect the nation. They were a permanent branch of the Army.

What Did They Do During the War? 

The top engineers would guard railroads and bridges and often never saw combat. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers mapped areas, aided in the construction of different bridges and forts, destroyed enemy supply lines, and assisted in siege warfare. 

They were vital because they built and fortified important forts, bridges, and locations to such an extent that they survived the war. For example, the bridges at Washington experienced ten times the volume expected during the war, yet they remained unarmed by all the additional traffic. In addition to the bridges around Washington D.C., they also worked on the multi-fort ring of defenses for the capital. By the end of the war, there were sixty-eight forts within a thirty-seven-mile perimeter to defend the capital. This freed up important generals and troops to enter the battlefield rather than needed to stay behind to defend the capital and White House. 

There were also men from the engineers who served on the battlefield by working as carpenters, masons, and other skilled workers. They would also help construct the pontoon bridges and direct the siege warfare during battles. And after a Confederate town or city fell to the Union, engineers would enter and rebuild the infrastructure. They would repair such things as the railroad lines to reconnect the city with the surrounding countryside. 

Herman Haupt, born in Philadelphia, PA, graduated from the U.S. Military Academy in 1835. He would go to work as a railroad engineer and would also spend time as a mathematics and engineering professor at Pennsylvania College.  Prior to the American Civil War, he patented a portable truss technique that bears his name - Haupt Truss. Two of his Haupt truss bridges still stand in Altoona and Ardmore, PA. They were both built in 1854. He would receive the rank of colonel and be put in charge of the US Military Railroad System, but after being named a brigadier in September 1862, he turned in his commission and worked without rank or pay. He did not want any restrictions on his work which the commission brought. His organized trains kept the Union Army well-equipped and supplied. 

There are many locations that feature the engineering work of the men during the American Civil War including:  

• Washington's Long Bridge across the Potomac River 
• Trestle bridge near Whiteside, VA
• Cabin John Bridge 
• Fort Stevens 

Even with so much destruction, the American Civil War did bring with it advancements in different areas, such as engineering. 

You can read more about Herman Haupt to find out what he did, in addition to the small bit of information I included here. And you might also be interested to know how Gouverneur K. Warren impacted the battle of Gettysburg, too. 

Blogging Through the Alphabet: D is for Disease during the American Civil War

 

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Diseases and illnesses were a huge threat to soldiers during the American Civil War. According to The Untold Civil War: Exploring the Human Side of War by James Robertson: "For every soldier who perished in action, two died behind the lines from sickness" (126). What a horrible ratio! And some research even indicates the number of soldiers who died due to disease and sickness could have been even higher. 

What Led to Diseases? 

The causes of diseases in the American Civil War were some of the same ones that impacted our world for hundreds of years. And while there were improvements over the course of the war, most of the conditions were still present in one place or another. 

• Poor food and inadequate diet 
• Poor sanitation 
• Poor camp conditions
• Poor hygiene 
• Ill-equipped or ill-trained doctors and nurses  
• Lack of specific courses of treatment
• Lack of knowledge regarding some of the diseases and illnesses 
• Battle wounds 
• Food poisoning  
• Bad weather (rain and heat) 
• Mosquitoes and flies 
• Filthy drinking water

What were the Typical Diseases? 

In an essay, Disease by Stanley B. Burns, MD, it is stated that there were 5.8 million sick cases during the American Civil War. What exactly impacted the soldiers in such great numbers? 

• Diarrhea 
• Dysentery (diarrhea with bloody stool) 
• Malaria 
• Typhoid Fever
• Rubeola - Red Measles 
• Pneumonia 

The two leading diseases were diarrhea and dysentery. Dr. Burns states that: "57,000 deaths were directly recorded to these most disabling maladies. The total recorded Union cases were 1,528,098." Why were diarrhea and dysentery so dangerous? In drastic conditions, it could lead to dehydration and make the men more susceptible to other illnesses and diseases. If they entered battle while suffering from either of these maladies, the soldier could suffer abdominal pain or have a fever.

Following closely behind these two diseases were malaria and typhoid fever. Many suffered from malaria and while doctors and scientists were unsure as to how it was spread and caused, they did prescribe quine which helped keep the number of deaths down. Unfortunately, the same lack of knowledge as to what caused typhoid fever did not mean that there were treatments or cures. 17,000 Confederate soldiers died over one 18-month period of typhoid fever. In fact, one regiment, the 18th VA regiment, lost more men to typhoid fever than to combat. 

Final Thoughts 

I can only imagine the fear, worry, and anxiety that the soldiers faced during the American Civil War. They were afraid of seeing the elephant (entering combat for the first time), worrying about getting injured or killed, or their friends getting wounded or killed, and they must have been anxious about what was happening back at home. Was their family safe? Was their home being invaded or destroyed depending upon where they were from in the United States? Then one has to factor in their concern over disease and illnesses. So many worries. I am thankful for the advances they did have in medicine that helped and those men and women (like Clara Barton) who were able to provide medical care, comfort, and relief from diseases, illnesses, and wounds.

Would You Like to Learn More? 

PBS Mercy Street: Typhoid Fever and the American Civil War

PBS Mercy Street: Disease

Disease and the Civil War: Statistics

Blogging Through the Alphabet: C is for Children and the American Civil War

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The American Civil War impacted all aspects of life. When sons signed up to serve in the Union and Confederate armies, parents were often both proud of their sons and worried about the risks. And then, on some occasions, when sons decided to fight for the "other side," parents felt even more concern and sometimes pain and humiliation and betrayal. Families would also be broken up as fathers enlisted, leaving behind wives and children. 

How did the children feel? 

I can only imagine how children felt when they said goodbye to their fathers (and brothers in some cases). Depending on how far the families lived from large cities, they may have had different opinions about the Civil War. Some families were very proud of their fathers and sons as they enlisted. Tied up with pride was a feeling of patriotism. Northerners and Southerners both felt they were serving their nation. Tied up in pride and patriotism were also sadness and worry. The families' lives were changing, and no one really knew for how long. 

What about those children who lived where battles were taking place? Can you imagine the children who would see armed men entering their towns and homes? In Civil War Soldiers by Reid Mitchell, we can read an excerpt from the diary of New York Officer Burrage Rice. On Dec 29, 1864, he wrote: 

"All I pity are the little children. They look up so sad with so much astonishment wondering, I presume, why we are all armed, filling their little hearts with terror, & why they are all so destitute & why Papa is not at home attending to their wants in this bleak cold winter weather. Poor children! They know not they are suffering the curse of treason."

How did the fathers feel? 

Many fathers were worried that their children would forget them. In the letters they sent home, they wrote their wives to remember them to their children. Both sides would share photographs. In some cases, fathers would send home photographs of themselves in their uniforms, while mothers would send snapshots of their children. Children also sent messages to their fathers through their mothers.

There were only a few occasions when fathers wrote letters directly to their children. In general, letters written home were meant to be read by adults, and only parts were shared with the children. Today, this might seem odd as we often send postcards, letters, emails, text messages, etc. to our children but this was not the norm during the American Civil War.

Impact on Families 

The feelings of sadness would be multiplied if the fathers died in battle, in prison, or after being wounded. The numbers could be quite high for each unit. The chaplain of the 30th North Carolina Infantry listed the widows and fatherless children left behind. There were 114 husbands and fathers of the 358 who died. They left 114 widows and 249 fatherless children behind. 

There is one famous photograph of three children who were orphaned after the battle of Gettysburg. Their father was holding the photo of his three children but his body was unidentified. Magazines printed the photo and distributed the likenesses so they could identify the soldier. Eventually, Philanda Hamiston of Portville, NY saw the photo of the children. It was her husband, Sergeant Amos Hamiston of the 154th New York, and her children who had been orphaned. This is but one case of numerous children being orphaned in the American Civil War. 

I can only imagine the impact on the children both during the war and afterward. We are seeing the impact of an unusual couple of years on our own children. There may not have been a civil war, but our children – our nation – was greatly impacted by decisions made over the past several years, and we are only now realizing the toll it has taken on our young ones.

Read More 

If you want to read three letters a father wrote to his children, you can find them at The Blog of Gettysburg National Military Park. 

PBS: Kids in the Civil War

View "The children of battle field" at the Library of Congress. 

Blogging Through the Alphabet: B is for Belle Boyd

 

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There are several well-known spies from the American Civil War, including ones for both the Union and Confederacy. Two of the most famous from the South include Rose O'Neal Greenhow and the subject of this post - Belle Boyd. And while there was no official network of spies both the Union and Confederacy had many individuals who served to gather information to help the war effort. 

The Start of the Belle's Career 

Maria Isabella "Belle" Boyd was born on May 9, 1844, to a prominent family near Martinsburg, Virginia (West Virginia today). She received a good education during her youth. When war broke out, her forty-five-year-old father enlisted in the Confederate Army and would serve in the Stonewall brigade. 

While her father was away, Belle would start on the road to infamy when she shot and killed a Union officer. On July 4, 1861, a drunken Union soldier insulted her and her mother so she shot and killed him in their home. Belle would later write in a post-war memoir that the soldier had "addressed my mother and myself in language as offensive as possible." She would be found not guilty after an investigation into the event.

Confederate Courier 

At the age of 17, Belle started her career as a Confederate spy and courier. In May of 1862, she took news to General Stonewall Jackson regarding the Union strength at Front Royal. Jackson captured Front Royal and acknowledged the contribution of Belle. 

She would continue to gather information by frequenting Union camps. One of the ways she gathered information is through flirting with the Union officers and using her charm. In the years after the Civil War, she would exaggerate her spying by saying she eavesdropped at Union headquarters in Front Royal. She became so famous that she would be dubbed by the press as "La Belle Rebelle" and "Cleopatra of Secession." 

Arrests 

Belle did not avoid arrests. In fact, she was arrested six or seven times. In July of 1862, she was arrested in Washington D.C. and held at the Old Capitol Prison. After about a month, she was let go as part of a prisoner exchange. But Belle would be arrested again in July of 1863 and released in December. 

When sailing for England in 1864, she was arrested as a Confederate courier. She only escaped to Canada with the aid of Lieutenant Sam Hardinge, a Union Naval Officer. She would later marry Lt. Hardinge after getting to England. She would stay in England for several years, writing her memoirs, including Belle Boyd in Camp and Prison, and gaining fame on the stage. She returned to America as a widow and mother to share her story.

After the War 

While in America, she married again (another man who fought for the Union) but divorced him after 16 years, in 1884. Two months after her divorce, she married an actor 17 years her junior. Belle Boyd died on June 11, 1900, of a heart attack in Kilbourn, Wisconsin. 

As a Confederate spy, Belle Boyd defied the traditional women's role of the day. She continued to defy the traditional role by sharing her experiences during the American Civil (a bit exaggerated) in both memoirs and on stage. For someone who was so well-known during the Civil War, I found it odd that I hadn't really read her name as much as I had read about "Rebel Rose." I also find it interesting that she married two men who fought for the Union when she was such a supporter of the Confederacy. 

Do You Want to Read More? 

American Battlefield Trust 

Smithsonian: Women Spies of the Civil War